Literature

Bitzenbauer, P.  et al. (2024). Design and evaluation of a questionnaire to assess learners’ understanding of quantum measurement in different two-state contexts: The context matters. PHYSICAL REVIEW PHYSICS EDUCATION RESEARCH 20, 020136 

The teaching and learning of quantum physics has recently become a topic of increasing interest in physics education research. In particular, the study of two-state systems is gaining importance as a means of teaching quantum physics at various educational levels. Meanwhile, a number of approaches have been developed that are also suitable for high school students. It can be assumed that the different approaches have different degrees of effectiveness in teaching central quantum concepts. However, suitable evaluation instruments to test this are still lacking. Therefore, as a first step, a short questionnaire on quantum measurement, suitable for both research and classroom use, was developed in several steps. First, a questionnaire with open and closed items was created and piloted with a total of N ¼ 120 learners. The responses were evaluated qualitatively using a comprehensive coding manual, which provided insights into learners’ conceptions. These results led to the development of an eight-item questionnaire that could be adapted to different teaching approaches. This questionnaire was subjected to expert review and, finally, successfully tested for its psychometric properties with a sample of N ¼ 201 learners. Overall, our results provide initial empirical evidence that context (i.e., which two-state approach is used) does matter for student learning, but in general, two-state approaches appear to be particularly conducive to learning quantum concepts (specified in this article for quantum measurement) compared to traditional instruction

Darienzo, M. et al. (2024). Student attitudes toward quantum information science and technology in a high school outreach program. PHYSICAL REVIEW PHYSICS EDUCATION RESEARCH 20, 020126

[This paper is part of the Focused Collection in Investigating and Improving Quantum Education through Research.] With the current growth in quantum information science and technology (QIST), there is an increasing need to prepare precollege students for postsecondary QIST study and careers. This mixed methods, explanatory sequential research focused on students’ affective outcomes from a one-week, 25-h summer program for U.S. high school students in grades 10–12. The workshop structure was based upon psychosocial theories of self-determination and planned behavior, where QIST aspirations may be facilitated and viewed as achievable choices if students acquire disciplinary knowledge, self-efficacy, normative expectancy of their capacity in the field, and awareness of vocational roles. The program featured lectures, demonstrations, and hands-on experiences in classical and quantum physics and quantum computing. Students’ attitudes toward QIST (N ¼ 77)—including self-efficacy, self-concept, relevance, career aspirations, and perceptions of quantitative fluency—showed improvement with a medium effect size, even though treatment students entered the program with more positive QIST attitudes when compared with a control group of high school physics students (N ¼ 65). Postprogram interviews with n ¼ 12 participants identified several explanatory themes: (i) Students tended to comprehend classical and quantum topics taught through multiple representations, regardless of whether they had taken physics previously; (ii) students experienced some challenges with mathematics and science concepts that support quantum understanding, yet they revealed a willingness to learn new concepts outside of their comfort zone; (iii) students expressed motivation for pursuing science, technology, engineering, and mathematics and/or quantum-related careers in the future, as well as increased QIST self-concept, largely through understanding the relevance of QIST in solving technological problems; and (iv) students reported increased self-efficacy in understanding QIST topics and performing related tasks. This informal summer program showed promise in promoting positive student attitudes toward QIST, a critical emerging field in advancing technological solutions for global challenges.

Ebai, F.E.E., et al. (2024). Quantum Computing as Uprising Topic for Business Students in Higher Educational Institutions. International Conference The Future of Education.

Quantum computing, dating back to the 20th century, has seen significant developments, and its market is expected to reach $125 billion by 2030 (AFCEA,2023). Besides, in today's rapidly evolving world with vast and complex data, quantum computing technology is increasingly becoming essential (Fujitsu, 2023). Despite its widespread applications in finance, healthcare, physics, and cybersecurity, there exists a noticeable gap in educational offerings tailored for business and economics students. The integration of this critical subject into the curriculum of business students remains an underexplored area, demanding more attention and insight within academic institutions. This paper aims to outline the historical applications of quantum computing in both scientific and business fields. We explore existing educational offerings of quantum computing for business students and investigate the potential of quantum computing to leverage business operations. Further, we examine the challenges encountered in both business and academic spheres when implementing quantum computing technologies. Finally, we provide strategic recommendations for businesses and academic institutions regarding applying quantum computing in such contexts. Our findings and recommendations serve as valuable guidelines for educational institutions seeking to integrate quantum computing into their business programs. Additionally, by showing the connections between quantum computing and business and addressing challenges, businesses can make more informed decisions and plan effective strategies.

Hu, P. et al. (2024). Investigating and improving student understanding of the basics of quantum computing. PHYSICAL REVIEW PHYSICS EDUCATION RESEARCH 20, 020108 

Quantum information science and engineering (QISE) is a rapidly developing field that leverages the skills of experts from many disciplines to utilize the potential of quantum systems in a variety of applications. It requires talent from a wide variety of traditional fields, including physics, engineering, chemistry, and computer science, to name a few. To prepare students for such opportunities, it is important to give them a strong foundation in the basics of QISE, in which quantum computing plays a central role. In this study, we discuss the development, validation, and evaluation of a Quantum Interactive Learning Tutorial, on the basics and applications of quantum computing. These include an overview of key quantum mechanical concepts relevant to quantum computation (including ways a quantum computer is different from a classical computer), properties of single- and multiqubit systems, and the basics of single-qubit quantum gates. The tutorial uses guided inquiry-based teaching-learning sequences. Its development and validation involved conducting cognitive task analysis from both expert and student perspectives and using common student difficulties as a guide. For example, before engaging with the tutorial, after traditional lecture-based instruction, one reasoning primitive that was common in student responses is that a major difference between an N-bit classical and N-qubit quantum computer is that various things associated with a number N for a classical computer should be replaced with the number 2N for a quantum computer (e.g., 2N qubits must be initialized and 2N bits of information are obtained as the output of the computation on the quantum computer). This type of reasoning primitive also led many students to incorrectly think that there are only N distinctly different states available when computation takes place on a classical computer. Research suggests that this type of reasoning primitive has its origins in students learning that quantum computers can provide exponential advantage for certain problems, e.g., Shor’s algorithm for factoring products of large prime numbers, and that the quantum state during the computation can be in a superposition of 2N linearly independent states. The inquiry-based learning sequences in the tutorial provide scaffolding support to help students develop a functional understanding. The final version of the validated tutorial was implemented in two distinct courses offered by the physics department with slightly different student populations and broader course goals. Students’ understanding was evaluated after traditional lecture-based instruction on the requisite concepts and again after engaging with the tutorial. We analyze and discuss their improvement in performance on concepts covered in the tutorial.

Krijtenburg-Lewerissa, K. et al (2017). Insights into teaching quantum mechanics in secondary and lower undergraduate education. PHYSICAL REVIEW PHYSICS EDUCATION RESEARCH 13, 010109 

This study presents a review of the current state of research on teaching quantum mechanics in secondary and lower undergraduate education. A conceptual approach to quantum mechanics is being implemented in more and more introductory physics courses around the world. Because of the differences between the conceptual nature of quantum mechanics and classical physics, research on misconceptions, testing, and teaching strategies for introductory quantum mechanics is needed. For this review, 74 articles were selected and analyzed for the misconceptions, research tools, teaching strategies, and multimedia applications investigated. Outcomes were categorized according to their contribution to the various subtopics of quantum mechanics. Analysis shows that students have difficulty relating quantum physics to physical reality. It also shows that the teaching of complex quantum behavior, such as time dependence, superposition, and the measurement problem, has barely been investigated for the secondary and lower undergraduate level. At the secondary school level, this article shows a need to investigate student difficulties concerning wave functions and potential wells. Investigation of research tools shows the necessity for the development of assessment tools for secondary and lower undergraduate education, which cover all major topics and are suitable for statistical analysis. Furthermore, this article shows the existence of very diverse ideas concerning teaching strategies for quantum mechanics and a lack of research into which strategies promote understanding. This article underlines the need for more empirical research into student difficulties, teaching strategies, activities, and research tools intended for a conceptual approach for quantum mechanics.

Krijtenburg-Lewerissa, K. et al. (2020). Secondary school students’ misunderstandings of potential wells and tunneling. PHYSICAL REVIEW PHYSICS EDUCATION RESEARCH 16, 010132.

In order to investigate students’ misunderstandings of potential wells and tunneling, a conceptual knowledge test was administered to Dutch secondary school students after they were taught about quantum mechanics. A frequency analysis of responses to the multiple choice questions (n ¼ 98) and coding of the responses to the open-ended questions and explanations (n ¼ 13) shows that Dutch secondary school students experience difficulties similar to those reported for undergraduate students. The students’ underlying difficulties were analyzed using a typology of learning impediments. Results of this analysis show that students have difficulty connecting knowledge of potential wells and tunneling to their prior knowledge. Students mainly have creative and epistemological learning impediments, which cause eight incorrect synthetic models.

Majidy, S. (2024).  Addressing misconceptions in university physics: A review and experiences from quantum physics educators. 

Students often enter physics classrooms with deeply ingrained misconceptions, typically stemming from common intuition and everyday experiences. These misconceptions present significant challenges for educators, as students are often resistant to information that conflicts with their preconceptions. As a result, traditional instructional methods often fail to address misconceptions. The first aim of this manuscript is to summarize the existing literature on misconceptions in university physics. This resource for instructors reviews misconceptions’ sources, diagnoses, and remediation strategies. Like most physics education research, the majority of this literature has concentrated on classical physics. However, quantum physics poses unique challenges because its concepts are far removed from everyday experiences and intuition. This uniqueness signals the need to ask how well the strategies developed for addressing misconceptions in classical physics apply to quantum physics. This need is underscored by the recent surge of people from diverse backgrounds entering quantum physics because of the growing significance of quantum technologies in fields such as computing, cryptography, and materials science. To help answer this question, we conducted in-depth interviews with quantum physics instructors at the University of Waterloo who have collectively taught over 100 university quantum physics courses. These interviews explored the nature of common misconceptions in quantum physics, their origins, and effective instructional techniques to address them. We highlight specific misconceptions, such as misunderstanding of entanglement and spin, and successful teaching strategies, including “misconception-trap quizzes.” We integrate insights from the literature review with our interview data to provide an overview of current best practices in addressing physics misconceptions. Furthermore, we identify key research questions that warrant further exploration, such as the efficacy of multi-tier tests in quantum physics and developing a cohesive quantum curriculum. This paper aims to inform educators and curriculum developers, offering practical recommendations and setting a research agenda to improve conceptual understanding in classical and quantum physics.

Meyer, J.C. et al (2022). Today’s interdisciplinary quantum information classroom: Themes from a survey of quantum information science instructors. PHYSICAL REVIEW PHYSICS EDUCATION RESEARCH 18, 010150.

Interdisciplinary introduction to quantum information science (QIS) courses are proliferating at universities across the US, but the experiences of instructors in these courses have remained largely unexplored in the discipline-based education research (DBER) communities. Here, we address this gap by reporting on the findings of a survey of instructors teaching introduction to QIS courses at institutions across the U.S., primarily at the undergraduate or hybrid undergraduate and graduate level, as well as follow-up focus interviews with six individual instructors. Key themes from this analysis include challenges and opportunities associated with the diversity of instructor and student backgrounds, student difficulties with the mathematical formalism (especially though not exclusively with linear algebra), and the need for better textbooks and curricular materials. We also find that while course topics are ostensibly similar, each course is crafted by its instructor to tell a different story about QIS and to uniquely balance goals such as accessibility and academic rigor, such that no canonical introduction to QIS course emerges from our dataset. We discuss the implications of this finding with regard to the benefits and risks associated with standardization of curricula as QIS coursework matures.

Pashaei, P. et al. (2020). Educational Resources for Promoting Talent in Quantum Computing.  DOI 10.1109/QCE49297.2020.00046

Quantum physics has a deep impact in today’s economy, with a historical role in industry sectors ranging from chemicals to electronics. Today, Quantum Computing advents to industrial relevance, signaling a renewed demand for a quantum-enabled workforce. Despite this clear interest, novelty and complexity frequently limit the exposure of young students to this topic, threatening the engagement of potential future practitioners and leaders. We advocate that quantum computing concepts can, effectively, be introduced at the primary and secondary school level. We substantiate this by compiling in this paper a number of publicly available resources, of our creation and from third parties, tested in real classes, for integrating Quantum Computing to the education for K-12 age groups.

Salehi, O. et al. (2022). A computer science-oriented approach to introduce quantum computing to a new audience.  

In this study, an alternative educational approach for introducing quantum computing to a wider audience is highlighted. The proposed methodology considers quantum computing as a generalized probability theory rather than a field emanating from physics and utilizes quantum programming as an educational tool to reinforce the learning process. Background: Quantum computing is a topic mainly rooted in physics, and it has been gaining rapid popularity in recent years. A need for extending the educational reach to groups outside of physics has also been becoming a necessity. Intended Outcomes: This study aims to inform academics and organizations interested in introducing quantum computing to a diverse group of participants on an educational approach. It is intended that the proposed methodology would facilitate people from diverse backgrounds to enter the field. Application Design: The introductory quantum physics content is bypassed and the quantum computing concepts are introduced through linear algebra instead. Quantum programming tasks are prepared in line with the content. Pre/post-test design method and Likert scale satisfaction surveys are utilized to measure knowledge acquisition and to evaluate the perception of the learning process by the participants. Findings: Conducted pre/post-test design survey shows that there is a statistically significant increase in the basic knowledge levels of the participants on quantum computing concepts. Furthermore, no significant difference in the gain scores is observed between the participants from different STEM-related educational backgrounds. The majority of the participants were satisfied and provided positive feedback.

Seegerer, S. et al. (2021). Quantum computing as a topic in computer science education.

Quantum technologies are currently among the most promising technological developments, with quantum computing, in particular, playing a crucial role. This is accompanied by promising opportunities, but also new challenges for our society. However, quantum computing as a subject of computer science education is still at the very beginning. This paper aims to discuss quantum computing as a topic in computer science education and to make a first approach to central terms and ideas as well as their explanatory approaches. With the help of an explorative focus group interview with experts, five core ideas of quantum computer science are identified in this study. A literature review is then used to identify, categorize, and contrast different explanatory approaches for these ideas. The results thus contribute to making quantum computer science accessible for computing education and raise further questions for the computing education research community.

Waitzmann, M. et al. (2024). Testing quantum reasoning: Developing, validating, and application of a questionnaire. PHYSICAL REVIEW PHYSICS EDUCATION RESEARCH 20, 010122 DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevPhysEducRes.20.010122  

Clear and rigorous quantum reasoning is needed to explain quantum physical phenomena. As pillars of true quantum physical explanations, we suggest specific quantum reasoning derived from quantum physical key ideas. An experiment is suggested to support such a quantum reasoning, in which a quantized radiation field interacts with an optical beam splitter, leading to experimental results conflicting with classical physical predictions. The results, however, can be explained consistently with a quantum reasoning based on the key ideas of probability, superposition, and interference (PSI). In this quantum optical key experiment the optical beam splitter prepares a superposition of single photon states and a Michelson interferometer is used to detect the superposition via controlled propagation phases. Although different single photon experimental setups (aimed at helping students to gain access to foundational issues in quantum physics) have been discussed in the past, the wave-particle dualism bound to classical physics maintains its predominance as an explanation pattern for the interpretation of these experiments. The study presented here investigates the effect of the quantum optical key experiment on the ability of students to use quantum reasoning based on the key ideas of PSI to overcome the naive wave-particle dualism. The current state of relevant studies that test student access to quantum physics can roughly be divided into two distinct areas: one tests how mathematical abilities help them to understand quantum physics and one tests how nonmathematical representations of a set of specific quantum theoretical traits (“Wesenszüge”) lead to a deeper understanding of quantum physics. There is a lack of questionnaires that focus on the idea of developing quantum reasoning based on superposition, probability, and interference of quantum states combined with a real experiment using true quantum light. In the first part of the article, we describe the physical modeling and present the development of the questionnaire. The set of items has been constructed from newly developed items and combined with well-tested ones. The validation of the set addresses qualitative and quantitative methods. In the second part, we give a pre- and poststudy examination of the impact of the quantum optical key experiment on students’ quantum reasoning. A significant increase in the number of students using quantum arguments is based on PSI reasoning for the explanation of an interference, such as the behavior of single photon states. Though the increase is significant, we found only minor changes in a particular issue to the students’ reasoning when approaching quantum physics as illustrated by a sample of answers given in the second part of the article. The concept of quantum states and the principle of superposition still appear particularly difficult.